Naturally-Mined Diamonds
How are they sourced?
Diamonds are found in 3 deposit forms: alluvial gravels, glacial tills, and kimberlite pipes. All diamonds originate from kimberlite pipes, but the rocks can move due to geological activity (Bonsor, n.d.). Diamonds are then mined through open-pit, underground and most recently marine mining (Butcher, n.d.). Based on the type of mining, “each of these mining methods involves application of heavy machinery, explosives, hydraulic shovels and trucks to extract diamonds from deep below the surface of the earth” (Frost & Sullivan, 2014).
Natural diamond mining can be considered unsustainable due to its environmental impact, which “displaces hundreds of acres of earth, which can devastate the natural environment and disrupt fragile ecosystems, causing irreversible damage” (Butcher, n.d.). This type of activity is usually facilitated by fossil fuels. Per carat, an average of 160kg of Carbon and greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere and 250 tons of earth is moved (Butcher, n.d.).
This has a knock-on effect on wildlife and local people, for example, “hundreds of cattle died after drinking water from the Odzi River in Zimbabwe, located downstream from a diamond processing plant. Similar incidents occur throughout mining regions in Africa with limited water supplies” (Butcher, n.d.). Marine mining is a fairly new practice, but environmentalists have expressed concern over “the impact of noise, machinery, and light on marine life, in addition to the challenges already posed by pollution and climate change” (Butcher, n.d.).
(Getty Images, 2017)
(National Park Service, n.d.)
(Asanta Community Mining Limited, n.d.)
Kimberlite / Lamproite Pipes
Kimberlite pipes (named after Kimberley in South Africa where they were first discovered) are created when “magma flows through deep fractures in the Earth [picking up diamonds along the way]. The magma inside the kimberlite pipes acts like an elevator, pushing the diamonds and other rocks and minerals through the mantle and crust in just a few hours”. When the magma cools, it leaves a “bluish” rock that miners look for to find diamondiferous deposits (Bonsor, n.d.).
The pipes themselves are often less than 100 million years old. However, the diamonds they carry were formed 1 to 3.3 billion years ago at depths of more than about 75 miles. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024).
(Getty Images, 2017)
Glacial Tills
As written by Britannica, “Diamonds found in alluvial and glacial gravels have been released by fluvial or glacial erosion of the kimberlite matrix and then redeposited in rivers or in glacial till” (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024). Which effectively means that glaciers and water have moved the diamonds from their original location (Bonsor, n.d.).
(National Park Service, n.d.)
(Asanta Community Mining Limited, n.d.)
Alluvial Gravels
In alluvial gravels, diamonds are found in river beds and recovered from deposits of sand, gravel and clay. As written by the World Diamond Council, alluvial diamond deposits are spread across huge geographic areas therefore only large concentrations can be mined on an industrial basis (World Diamond Council, n.d.).
The smaller concentrations are mined informally and are unregulated (World Diamond Council, n.d.). It’s reported that “around 10% of the world’s rough diamonds are sourced through industrial alluvial mining and 14% through artisanal or small-scale informal alluvial diamond digging” (World Diamond Council, n.d.). Experts such as Chaim Even-Zohar (top diamond industry analyst) and Ian Smillie (from the Diamond Development Initiative - an African artisanal miner advocacy group) confirm this statistic as fairly accurate (Fried, 2023).
Formal / Industrial Mining
This form of uncovering diamonds requires a certain volume of product called the ‘overburden’ and is characterised through “high investment, strict regulations, government investment and is conducted by formal mining companies” (World Diamond Council, n.d.). Sediment removed during the process can then be used to rehabilitate the area.
Small-Scale Artisanal & Informal Digging (ASM)
Otherwise known as artisanal diamond digging, this dangerous and labour-intensive form of digging is typically conducted by individuals or families (including children) using basic equipment on smaller deposits of land that is unregulated and unlicensed. It’s said many diggers “do not know the true value of rough diamonds and are therefore vulnerable to exploitation” (World Diamond Council). As reported by the World Diamond Council, “it is estimated that 1.3 million people in Africa work in this sector” across countries such as: Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and more.
Long-term Solutions for Small-Scale Artisanal & Informal Digging
As the Kimberley Process covers official diamond mining practices, there needs to be infrastructure in place for small-scale mining operations that occur ‘off the radar’. This requires solutions that generate wealth, build infrastructure and help redevelop countries where small-scale informal diamond digging occurs. The diamond industry has implemented the following initiatives to aid in the cause:
1. Diamond Development Initiative (DDI)
The Diamond Development Initiative (DDI) works to “improve living and working conditions in artisanal mining communities. They also contribute to education and environmental cleanup” by working with members such as the World Bank, De Beers Group, Global Witness and more through pilot projects (Rice, n.d.).
(DDI, n.d.)
2. The Peace Diamond Alliance (PDA)
By a coalition of “NGOs (non-government organisations), small-scale informal alluvial diamond diggers and diamond traders from the Kono district diamond mining region of Sierra Leone. The PDA aims to improve conditions for diggers and ensure that revenue fosters local development through educating miners on diamond’s value to avoid exploitation” (World Diamond Council, n.d.).
3. The Mwadui Community Diamond Partnership
Formed by the Government of Tanzania, Williamsons Diamond Limited, local NGOs and the De Beers Group. The Mwadui Community Diamond Partnership is “a pilot project established to generate practical solutions needed to alleviate poverty and protect human rights among small-scale informal alluvial diamond mining communities in Tanzania” (World Diamond Council, n.d.).
(GemFair, n.d.)
GemFair
In a venture by De Beers Group, GemFair is “creating a secure and transparent route to market for artisanal and small-scale (ASM) mining for diamonds” by formalising the sector instead of prohibiting it - as prohibition is an unsustainable solution (De Beers Group, n.d.).
Blood / Conflict Diamonds
Naturally mined diamonds have faced criticism from the use of conflict to retrieve the precious stones. Blood or conflict diamonds are defined by the United Nations (UN) as “any diamond that is mined in areas controlled by forces opposed to the legitimate, internationally recognized government of a country and that is sold to fund military action against that government” (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.). To simplify the meaning, rough diamonds are used by rebel movements or their allies in diamond-rich areas to finance armed conflicts aimed at affecting innocent civilians and undermining legitimate governments in Angola, The Democratic Republic of Congo and Sierra Leone and more (Kimberley Process, n.d.).
(Gem Konnect, 2015)
As portrayed in the 2006 Hollywood movie ‘Blood Diamond’ by director Edward Zwick; the fictional story is based on real life experiences of those in Sierra Leone during the 1999 civil war. The film depicts village attacks by rebel gangs involving child soldiers, illegal trade and slave labour - cutting the fingers of those that did not comply.
The film suggests De Beers keeps their diamonds in storage to cater to supply and demand, buying all the supply regardless of its origin in order to remain the world’s largest diamond producer. While also implying ‘dirty stones’ (otherwise known as blood diamonds) are mixed with clean in the supply chain - with no verification once a diamond enters the system. The key message shown at the end of the film is, “illegal diamonds are still finding their way to market. It is up to the consumer to insist that a diamond is conflict-free” (Zwick, 2006).
(Zwick, 2006)
(Corbis, n.d.)
(Global Witness, 1998)
The wider public was informed of the background of their diamonds in an initial report by Global Witness in 1998, titled ‘A Rough Trade 3.1 - The Role of Companies and Governments in the Angolan Conflict’, which sparked debate and action through highlighting facts such as: “in 1995 Angola’s total diamond output raised about $700m… of which $147m was accounted for by legal sales” (Global Witness, 1998).
As blood diamonds were mixed with clean in the supply chain, consumers became worried about the origins of their diamonds which posed the threat of boycotting to the entire diamond industry. Since then, the Kimberley Process was implemented to prevent the trade of conflict diamonds.
Some argue diamonds cannot be told apart in the purchasing process. However, the condition in which the rough diamonds are found can be identifiable to its country of origin; which can suggest whether or not a diamond has come from conflict. For example, Angola’s diamonds are known for being very distinctive as some of the best in the world (with 80-90% of production being gem-quality: large in size and excellent clarity) in comparison to its neighbouring country - The Democratic Republic of the Congo; where stones are of lesser quality, flatter in shape and greenish in colour (Global Witness, 1998).
Global Witness commented “it is difficult to understand how buying offices of international companies, that were operating in the DRC up to 1997, could confuse such diverse stones on such a continuing basis”. According to the report, “the director of one Diamond Trading School in South Africa notes one could identify a mixed parcel from the shape of the stones. Other traders have also privately stated that it is possible to identify parcels of unmixed diamonds” to the mine and even specific countries (Global Witness, 1998).
Despite the positive steps, Global Witness claims their research has led them to find further issues in the diamond industry still occurring in the current day. For example, in continued headlines, Zimbabwe’s diamond industry is faced with missing diamond revenue which has failed to benefit communities within the country - especially in the areas surrounding the Marange diamond fields; “this raises concerns that diamond money is secretly financing institutions responsible for oppressing the Zimbabwean people” (Global Witness, 2017).
After a violent military takeover “killing more than 200 people'' and multiple human rights violations - families who previously lived in the area were displaced and relocated to poorly built homes and have experienced broken promises for compensation (Human Rights Watch, 2009). As a result, families face unemployment, and are unable to send their children to school or farm as the land is unsuitable to grow sufficient produce leading to a food crisis (Mambondiyani, 2022).
(Armstrong, 2011)
Key findings in the ‘An Inside Witness’ report show, “diamonds have been traded in Antwerp and Dubai, circulating freely on international markets, despite the risk they may have funded human rights violations… diamonds were likely sold in Antwerp in violation of EU sanctions… [and the] Diamond Mining Corporation (DMC) was formed as a joint venture by the Government of Zimbabwe with a private investor. This is despite evidence that the individuals behind the company were involved in extensive smuggling of Zimbabwean diamonds for several years before obtaining a licence” (Global Witness, 2017).
(United Nations, 2015)
Goal 16: Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions
The UN’s 16th sustainable development goal aims to promote peaceful and inclusive societies, where citizens are able to feel “free from all forms of violence”. To continue, “conflict, insecurity, weak institutions and limited access to justice remain threats to sustainable development” (United Nations, 2015). For the diamond industry, this means the circulation of conflict diamonds is hindering the development of shared goals for a sustainable future as it promotes unethical sourcing practices.
The corresponding article by Fair Planet highlights the Marange community expects a partnership with ZCDC (Zimbabwe Consolidated Diamond Company) on a “30 /70 share with communities getting 30%". Additionally, the ZCDC has expressed interest in complying with the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (IRMA) that offers “the only third-party, arms-length certification of industrial-scale mine sites” (Mambondiyani, 2022).
(Tiffany & Co, 2021)
Case Study: Tiffany & Co. ‘About Love’ Campaign Starring Beyoncé and Jay-Z
The Tiffany Diamond is one of the Tiffany & Co. house's most notable high jewellery creations, made from one of the world’s largest yellow diamonds at 287.42 carats (cut to 128.54 carats). The diamond was unearthed in the Kimberley Mine, South Africa in 1877 and acquired for $18,000 by founder Charles Lewis Tiffany in 1878 (Fasel, 2022 & Tiffany & Co., n.d.).
The diamond has been featured in 4 designs and worn publicly very few times by notable figures from Audrey Hepburn to Beyoncé. Most recently, it has been reimagined for the grand reopening of Tiffany & Co’s flagship store in New York (The Landmark) in a design inspired by “Jean Schlumberger’s iconic Bird on a Rock design” (Tiffany & Co., n.d.).
There is often and understandably criticism for notable figures being seen in conflict diamonds for what they represent. Beyoncé, who often references African culture within her work, is seen with the diamond in the ‘About Love’ campaign with her husband, which generated an extraordinary amount of backlash. As the first black woman to wear the necklace, online critics are questioning why prior wearers such as Lady Gaga have not received the same criticism as the singer who attracted noticeably different headlines within the press. How can large corporations be held truly accountable when public figures seem to only face temporary consequences?
In present day, Tiffany & Co. claim that in 2020 they became “the first global luxury jeweller to disclose the countries where [their] newly sourced, individually registered diamonds of .18 carats and larger are sourced, cut, polished, graded and set” through their ‘Diamond Craft Journey’ (Tiffany & Co., n.d.).
Sources such as The Sunday Times and Jeweller Magazine suggest the diamond is a conflict diamond from the Kimberly / De Beers mine (The Sunday Times, n.d., Jeweller, n.d.). Based on social media reactions to the campaign “people see the stone as a symbol of British colonialism in Africa” (Ting, 2021).
The Kimberley mine (now called The Big Hole) sparked ‘The Kimberley Diamond Rush’ in 1871 in a “mad scramble for fame and fortune” (Experience Northern Cape, n.d.). The mine was later closed in 1914. Post-closure, “the mine had yielded 2722 kilograms of diamonds, extracted from 22,5 million tons of excavated earth. Today what remains is a massive crater 214 metres deep” (The Big Hole, n.d.). Now, the mine has a lasting legacy for the people of Kimberley, as a tourist site for visitors to learn about diamond mining in Northern Cape. In an effort by De Beers to continue adding value to the community, this site has offered 400+ jobs and business opportunities for the local people (The Big Hole, n.d.).
(Getty Images, 2020)
(United Nations, 2015)
Goal 8: Decent Work & Economic Growth
Goal 8 aims to “to promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for all” (United Nations, 2015). This means investing in education so the younger generation can attain employment regardless of their socio-economic standpoint, as well as ensuring adequate health and safety procedures.
According to the UN, global economic growth is slowing down, the world faces the worst economic recession since the Great Depression, during the pandemic 1.6 billion workers in the informal economy risk losing their livelihoods and tourism is facing unprecedented challenges (United Nations, 2015). The natural diamond mining industry has a way to continue contributing to local communities even when a diamond mine is closed, following on from The Big Hole at the former Kimberley mine to ensure consistent economic growth and tourism in the area.
(Tiffany & Co, 2021)
(Tiffany & Co., n.d.)
Case Study: De Beers & The Local Mining Community in Botswana
The De Beers Group is currently owned “85% by Anglo American and 15% by the Government of the Republic of Botswana” (De Beers Group, n.d.).
As one of the Earth’s most valuable stones, in areas where deposits are found, the findings should therefore benefit the local mining community. For this reason, De Beers have developed their ‘Kalahari Dream’ venture in Botswana to contribute to ESG factors within their business model and act responsibly for future generations.
Botswana first gained independence in 1966, the same year De Beers found diamonds in the country. At the time, “around 88% of the country’s export earnings were from beef. Today, more than 80% of its export earnings are from diamonds” (Davies, 2023).
(De Beers Group, 2022)
(Kalahari Dream, n.d.)
The Kalahari Dream website states “each diamond that makes its journey through our Botswana workshops is selected by our experts from the world’s most reputable mines who comply with the absolute highest standards of social and environmental responsibility” (Kalahari Dream, n.d.). Additionally there are certifications on the website from the Botswana government, the Responsible Jewellery Council and The Kimberley Process, as well as claiming to be ethically sourced and cruelty free. As conveyed in Nothing Lasts Forever, the diamond industry has benefitted Botswana by giving them more hospitals and doctors, while protecting their environment and wildlife (Kohn, 2022).
As written by the IGS (International Gem Society), “conflict-free refers to diamonds which have not financed civil wars. Ethical diamonds go further, ensuring fair pay, safe working conditions, environmentally sound practices, and no human rights abuses” (Rice, n.d.).
In a survey, 52.6% of respondents consider the environmental impact when buying diamonds but 70.2% would be willing to pay a premium for guaranteed conflict free and ethically sourced natural diamonds.
Unlike fairtrade products like coffee beans, most diamonds are untraceable to their origins as the supply chain is extremely webbed. Fried writes the only forms of ethical natural diamonds you can buy are recycled (one of the 7Rs of sustainability) or purchased from a CDCC (Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct) cooperating Canadian mine (Fried, 2023). Furthermore, “CanadaMark diamonds can be traced from mine to market with an unique ID number” (Fried, 2023). The market is popping up with more and more companies claiming their diamonds are completely traceable and therefore ethical, such as De Beers’s Kalahari Dream diamonds or their venture utilising blockchain technology: Tracr.
The chair of the Natural Diamond Council, Sandrine Conseiller is also CEO of De Beers Brands (Brands & Consumer Markets) and a member of the De Beers Executive Committee. The Natural Diamond Council is focused on educating customers on the benefit of buying naturally-mined diamonds (Natural Diamond Council, n.d.).
Deputy Editor at Goop, Aura Davies was able to visit Botswana to see the traceability of De Beers and Ben Bridge diamonds. She described the journey from the Jwaneng mine (the richest diamond mine worldwide) to GSS (Global Sightholder Sales) where diamonds are sorted to send to sightholders; within the facility, stones are “weighed and digitally mapped” (Davies, 2023). Davies explained sightholders will receive around 10 packages a year, with each package containing stones valued between $400-500 million (Davies, 2023).
There are select bodies authorised by third parties to buy rough diamonds from De Beers via the CSO (Central Selling Organisation - a subsidiary of De Beers) called sightholders, if they fail to meet De Beers strict sustainability / ethical working standards, their contract is immediately terminated (Davies, 2023).
For the Ben Bridge diamond roughs, packages are sent to Leo Schachter in Molepolole where digital maps are compared to ensure the correct stones have been sent. At the facility, it takes around 2 weeks for a diamond to be cut (to usually around 50% of the rough’s yield carat weight), “the company has been cutting in Botswana for 25 years, and it continues to train local staff to do the work, bringing over experts from India (who have a long history of gem cutting) to teach them” (Davies, 2023).
Goal 4: Quality Education
Goal 4 states “education enables upward socioeconomic mobility and is a key to escaping poverty” and fostering peaceful societies (United Nations, 2015). According to the goal, Sub-Saharan Africa faces the biggest challenges in providing access to basic resources and education. As a continent, Africa has huge financial potential; by 2030, “the services sector on its current trajectory will create at least 85 million net new jobs across the continent” (McKinsey Global Institute, 2023). As part of Sub-Saharan Africa, De Beers are helping achieve this goal for their work in Botswana.
Do you consider the environmental impact when buying diamonds?
Would you be willing to pay a premium for a guaranteed conflict-free and ethically sourced natural diamond?
(Davies, 2023)
(United Nations, 2015)
(Google Maps, n.d.)
(Only Natural Diamonds IN, n.d.)
(Lowe, n.d.).
Pro’s
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With the large-scale infrastructure needed to operate natural diamond mining, these ventures create “socio-economic development in the region” and the taxes the company pays “constitute a major contribution in the overall tax revenues for the governments in countries of operation” (Frost & Sullivan, 2014).
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Diamond mining creates high-quality opportunities for local workers and suppliers with their inclusion in the supply chain (e.g. training students or having a creche on site for working parents); supporting the livelihood of 10 million people worldwide (Only Natural Diamonds, n.d.).
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Many mining communities rely on diamonds as a source of income, therefore when a mine is closed - job loss is imminent. However, by implementing tourist attractions like ‘The Big Hole’ (formerly the The Kimberley mine) to ensure economic sustainability, this ensures long-term employment and income (Frost & Sullivan, 2014).
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Leading diamond producers help protect the lives and extinction of threatened species of wild animals through conservation programmes. For example, the De Beers Diamond Route “counts approximately half a million acres of conservation land across seven nature reserves” protecting the land's biodiversity of giraffes, zebras and rhinos (safeguarding 200,000 hectares across southern Africa) or protection for grizzly bears in Canada’s Northwest Territories (Only Natural Diamonds, n.d.).
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Natural diamond mining helps provide access to education for “over half a million children globally”; thanks to contributions from natural diamonds. De Beers have allowed students from a Botswana primary school to have access to free education (Only Natural Diamonds, n.d.).
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The industry has contributed $16 billion of annual benefits globally. Including healthcare for more than 4 million people (e.g. solar-powered clinics and disease management programmes), agriculture, jobs, education, and biodiversity (Only Natural Diamonds, n.d.).
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Diamonds are thought of as miracles of nature that come from the Earth, which is a true and inspiring story.
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There are ethical forms of natural diamonds on the market such as recycled or Canadian diamonds.
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According to a poll, customers would prefer naturally-mined diamonds for special occasions (such as an engagement where buyers would only ever buy a diamond once) for a multitude of reasons. Such as: the diamond having a story, a higher perceived value from its rarity and for the buyer's personal confidence in the stone.
For a special occasion (e.g. an engagement ring), which would you prefer?
Con’s
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Land impact (disturbed for mining, mineral waste disposed/stored, water usage).
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Air impact (Carbon emissions, production energy usage coming from fossil fuels, Sulphur Oxide and Nitrous Oxide emissions).
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Environmental impacts (pollution spills and releases, resource wastage if there are no diamonds in a particular deposit, biodiversity and archaeological impacts).
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Human impacts (worker accidents, fatalities and occupational diseases involved in diamond production). For example, Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate (LTIFR), Lost Time Injury Severity Rate (LTISR) and Occupational Disease Rate (ODR) (Frost & Sullivan, 2014).
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Buying a natural diamond has the risk of being a conflict-diamond, or unethically sourced (for example, through informal alluvial mining).
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A recycled diamond that has reentered the supply chain may still have come from unethical sources.
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Customers don’t buy diamonds in the aim of reselling. As the engagement ring is such a vital pillar of the industry this would therefore imply a customer thinking about divorce when purchasing the stone.
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The threat of synthetic diamonds is imminent as consumers get better 4C’s for their money. Which could lead to an oversaturated market and a loss of value in the jewellery industry. If the engagement ring market is lost, the diamond industry will be out of business.
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Contributors in the Nothing Lasts Forever film suggest some natural diamonds aren’t actually ‘real’ and have been replaced by synthetics in the supply chain.
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To some consumers, diamonds feel like a marketing gimmick by De Beers.
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Well-known diamonds have been obtained as a result of colonisation and therefore considered unethical which reflects poorly on the rest of the industry.